Assignment 2
A star image ‘speaks to us in terms we can understand about things that are important to us’ (Dyer)
With reference to specific examples suggest how audiences ‘use’ stars
Firstly to begin to explore how audiences interact with stars I will outline the features that help shape our understanding of what is meant by a star image. A star image is constructed by many different elements associated with the stars line of work, or the generic type of the work they do. The elements can include fashion, interviews and forms of interaction with other forms of media such as advertising. Media Institutions that back the star may also have some impact upon a star image although this depends upon the star and other elements such as popularity and success. The influence of these institutions almost makes it seem like some stars are ‘made up’ to specifically appeal to target groups and many images of stars often seem fabricated, although their lives are so far away from that of a civilian their fabricated persona is only reflecting their life as a celebrity. The star image can feed into their work and help construct or mould it, although this also works the other way around, with their work, for example a song they have written or a performance they have given can then lead to constructing their image. This often creates a confusion, which leaves audience to make up their own minds about a star. Audiences for example may share very different images of the same star which they have constructed themselves through relation and interaction with themselves, their lives, and their own personality. It has also been argued that audiences become influenced by stars and rather than making their own mind up they believe the direct image which is trying to be constructed. This idea goes along with the hypodermic needle theory which suggests audiences are spoon fed the media, and that we passively absorb it without question of reason or purpose, a view held by the Frankfurt school.
I believe this not to be the case most of the time most audiences are active members of society and that the media shapes itself around fulfilling our needs or pleasures. We are given autonomy and choice in which media forms we choose/ not choose to interact with. If there is a television show we are not interested in we can switch it off, I know of many people who mute the volume on the television during the advertisement breaks as they do not wish to be advertised to. This autonomy and power we have over the media immediately draws a veil over the view shared by the Frankfurt School yet I believe this autonomy to have increased in modern times due a greater understanding to the inner workings of the media.
I will be using the musical genre known as rap, or more recently known as hip hop focusing mainly upon the fans, to uncover the different ways in which they interact with hip hop artists. I will use examples from sets of fans from different artists mainly associated with the 90’s movement of ‘gangster’ rap whilst studying the transition and commercialisation the genre has over gone in more recent years and the increased number of fans the genre has received bridging various ethnical gaps through artists such as Cypress Hill and Eminem.
Hip Hop first became recognised in the late 1970’s / early 1980’s as a musical genre despite its various cultural groups, subcultures and the activities that come with this emerging earlier. Groups referred to as ‘B-boys’ or ‘B-girls’ became more frequent, at this early stage dominated by Black Americans organising events such as Block Parties to give a stage to musical and dancing performances that where rapidly increasing in popularity which progressed what we know as rapping (to sync rhyming words with a urban beat) to become a musical genre. The next level for the genre came with the introduction of artists such as Ice-T, Public Enemy and Run DMC which made their name during the 1980’s. These artists along with many of the others forming at the time carried a political presence apparent from their music and other appearance within the media. Their music seemed to contain a message to youth cultures to stand up and be counted. Public Enemy’s album ‘It takes a Nation of millions to hold us back’ is the best example of this. These artists also helped construct the culture that is apparent with hip hop although in an interview one artist from Run DMC known only as DMC believed the audiences and fans contributed more to the culture of the music than the artists actually do. He is quoted as saying ‘when we first started we didn’t put on no fancy costume because Run DMC is no gimmicks’ he continues then to describe his current code of dress and claims the audience more specifically ‘the youth’ helped construct his fashion saying ‘this is what our fans wear so dressing this way lets them know he’s just like me’. Interestingly here the audience has helped construct the persona and I would appear that the star is using the audience. This heightens the idea of the audience having autonomy yet does this view of a 1980’s rap artist still have any meaning in today’s commercialised industry? I shall be looking at multi million selling artist Jay-Z to see if audiences still influence the genre more than the star actually does.
I will now begin go over some comments left by various fans of the artist Jay-Z to see what they have written about their star and see if it offers insight into the different ways in which audiences use stars. Jay-Z co-founded Roc-a-Fella records which is now a subsidiary of Island Def Jam which is the most successful record label dedicated to music of black origin. He is a former CEO and president of Def Jam Recordings and has used his musical success to market a wide range of new ventures such as ‘Rocawear’ which is the labels own clothing brand, whilst also owning New Jersey Nets NBA team. Fans of Jay-Z ultimately have fuelled all of his success and with his ventures almost becoming highly successful proves the power of his persona and suggests audiences to be dedicated to the artist, although all these ventures eventually are constructed to make money fans of Jay remain loyal throughout as most of my findings suggest.
Whilst exploring different online fan forums including ‘Rocafella.com’ which is the official site for Jay-Z fans, I have found many fans to be adoring of the star offering devotion and worship. Many fans left comments similar to the following which came from a ‘Facebook’ group entitled ‘The Best Rapper Ever (Jay-Z)’. The group has been made by a fan and the name immediately suggests a high level of admiration through labelling him as the top player in his line of work. Comments such as ‘I love Jay-Z’ or ‘I love you Jay-Z and I love all your music” are plentiful in number showing his popularity, yet this is only comments left by a segment of his fans. These types of comments suggest the fan to be worshipping the star, they suggest closeness to the star and as in the comment above they write as if they are writing directly to them. This suggests a longing to be associated with the star, to take it further than simply being a fan of an artist. These fans highlight a distance between themselves and the star yet express a desire for this gap to be closed irrespective of how impossible this actually seems.
Most fans of hip hop music however seem to most interest in the musical works of their hero’s rather than the fashion or desire to become. Most discussion boards contain topics focusing on differences between a certain artist’s album and debates between different artist’s ability and style. This suggests a feeling of rivalry and competition which is in keeping with an American ideology of competitiveness. Although within hip hop music a desire to be the best or simply to be better than another individual has always been apparent in the genre and this is also become important to the fans. The most famous rivalry within hip hop was between Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G which was highly publicised and resulted in both stars being shot. Gangster Rap was put to blame and many record labels became under scrutiny to figure where these rivalries emerged from and why music was being influenced by a gangland violence. Many fans of Gangster Rap were actual gang members as the artists portrayed many gangster driven stories in their songs which they often claimed to be true. Through this real life gangsters had something they could relate to themselves. Tupac and Biggie’s rivalry was considered to be constructed, false and just a way to earn extra publicity before the two were murdered yet since then more rivalries have become a common part of the genre. With the tragic outcome of previous rivalries it confuses many that others have emerged and been brought to the media spotlight. Does this segregate fans into east and west coast groups or does it simply generate a greater interest in the genre and fuel fan debates and activities. Over the next paragraph I will consider what fans have written about the highly publicised rivalry Jay-Z had with another rapper named Nas to explore this in more depth.
Hi p Hop rivalries have an impact upon their audiences and affect their decisions when deciphering which artists to support. A discussion on the rivalry between Nas and Jay sprung up on the Rocafella website, where the audience defends Jay and his music and also leave negative comments directed towards his rival. One fan wrote “Jay Z is better in every department, lyrics, metaphors, performance. Nas can’t even compare”. Here the fan takes sides against another artist because of what they have read about the rivalry or maybe because they enjoy Jay’s music more, yet this is irrelevant. This again demonstrates a closeness that the fan constructs through the music of their idol. They will also generate negativity towards his rival and very possibly his fans. This almost creates a sense the fan wishes to help the star in his battle demonstrating pleasure in masculine power also. The fan is pretending they are involved in combat against the same opponent as their star almost resembling a soldier fighting for his King. This type of identification creates strong masculine pleasure for the fan involved yet Jay also appeals to feminine audiences as I will explore over the next paragraph.
Comments left by women over the board of Jay fan sites available are filled with comments about his music the same as most comments male or female however Jay offers a visceral pleasure to most of his female audiences. Recently married to Beyonce Knowles means his sexual appeal has increased further more. Comments relating directly to his physical appearance such as “Jay Z is hot” or “sexy” demonstrate his power as a sex symbol. The comments revolve around him with his name mentioned in most of this type. This creates a sense of longing to contact him or simply offers appreciation of his appearance. The fan receives their own pleasure through viewing the star in videos and increases his selling power. Photo shoots allow posters to be made which appeal to fans of this type who are more concerned with the stars appearance. However women are not the only fans who concentrate on the appearance of the star.
Fashion is a massive part of hip hop and male identification is gathered here through clothing and jewellery. Jay also being a recognised sex symbol himself, with a beautiful wife like Beyonce, increases male interest in his look and leads to some groups of fans to replicating the stars image in an attempt to achieve his sexual status. This is known as copying the star and creates a feeling of elation when being associated with the designer labels and glitzy jewellery that is so closely entwined with the genre. This copying carries a price tag and Jackie Stacy refers to this type of star interaction as ‘copying and consumption’ (156:1991). This is where the fan purchases items in relation to the star. Jay owning his own clothing brand immediately makes this process easier for his fans yet it hints towards him taking advantage when he already shapes the music of hip hop, receiving accolades and money for his work making his venture into the clothing industry a little fickle and one may say taking advantage of specific groups of fans. The topic of fashion didn’t feature on many discussion boards of fan sites yet the market itself proves a consumer need for hip hop associated items. As a previously more dedicated fan of Jay myself though I can relate to this area as I would always purchase white trainers as this was the image of many acts including Jay at the time. These purchases create a new masculine identity for the fan ‘which combines an aspect of the star with their own personality’ (157:1991).
I found it interesting that many of the posts left on fan sites contained lyrics from different Jay tracks. This increases my feeling that the music takes precedence over all other media forms Jay is associated with. These comments offer no ‘reference to identity of the spectator’ (150:1991) which again creates a distance between fan and star. However some do leave an element of self recognition when discussing his lyrics which emphasises the importance of his lyrics to them and comments such as “I think this was strong verse that came straight from heart” suggest a great love for his music and more importantly his lyrics. The use of the word heart suggests a form of identification and suggests something ‘real’ and ‘human’ about the verse in question. Jay’s lyrics play up on many emotions creating a sense of relation with his fans. The Fans themselves can believe the lyrics to be true to themselves heightening his drawing them closer to the star. This moves away from the idea of ‘devotion and worship’ (149:1991) that many comments just containing his lyrics suggest. Instead an escapist pleasure is gained from becoming involved with his rhymes and stories that come with his music due to the ‘spectator’s identity merging with the star’ (152:1991).
A common feature of the genre is fans singing or rapping along to his lyrics. This can be seen from Stacey’s point of view as ‘imitating’ the star in question which leads to a process of transformation of ones self (154:1991). Lyrics generate meaning to the fans so when they can sing along to them themselves this adds another layer of identification and expresses a desire to emulate the star or even become the star. The fans may copy other characteristics of hip hop stars such as hand movements which become expressive of feelings and emotions hinting towards an escapist pleasure being gained, or maybe dance moves signifying a basic pleasure being gained. Also fans use signs and signals such the Rocafella symbol of a diamond that Jay often portrays with his hands, offers a sense of belonging to something for the audience, as in when they put their hands up in this manner it shows the music they listen to, or the place where their fandom lies or simple labelling themselves to be part of a sub culture within society.
The many other connotations that come with the genre of hip hop label such as women and cars present a very masculine dominated genre although fans seem to be of both genders despite negative portrayals of women through lyrics and videos. This objectifies women offering a masculine pleasure, with the male audience imagining themselves in Jay’s perspective surrounded by beautiful women. One of Jays songs is titled ‘girls, girls, girls’ and is based around going over the different women he is claims to be dating. The male audience is attracted to these portrayals of women as it offers them a fantasy route where they can imagine women in an unrealistic manor, and offers a dream like desire of having multiple girlfriends. The male gaze is a large factor within rap music yet female fans do not seem to be deterred from this and many gain pleasure from being an object of male pleasure. It is these types of women that Jay talks about in his music and this could have affect upon young male audiences, creating a need for sexual dominance and multiple partners. More mature male audiences however may leave this simply as a fantasy pleasure gained viscerally. Fantasies gained from stars are used by the audience for many different needs yet in this case the fantasy closes ‘the distance between what we need and want and what we can have’ (115:1992)
In conclusion I feel the Star persona of Jay Z to have greater power over his fans than they do of him. Audiences identify directly with him mostly through his music, yet many different media forms he controls allows less autonomy for the audience yet doesn’t deter form the different ways in which they interact with the star. The choice is still apparent but can you be considered a true Jay Z fan if you don’t have an item of rocawear clothing? The commercialisation of the genre has changed the way in which fans use stars to a certain degree. In the days of Public Enemy as earlier discussed the fans set the fashion, yet money it would seem has taken precedence over the genre, which was born on the street and grew from a sub culture of people who may feel let down by the power hip hop artists posses over their fans in a modern world.
Bibliography
Gledhill, C (ed), 1991, Stardom Industry of Desire, Routledge, London
Lisa A. Lewis (ed), 1992, Adoring Audience, Routledge, London
http://www.rocafella.com/forum/
http://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=2207716511
http://www.amazon.co.uk/BLUEPRINT-EXPLICIT-VERSIO-Jay-Z/dp/B00005O54T/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=music&qid=1208628653&sr=8-1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahPPqrfDn-w
Tuesday, 23 September 2008
MSVC 104: Genre. Assignment 1
Assignment 1: Textual Analysis
Chosen Genre: Gangster/Crime Films
I have chosen to analyse the gangster genre which can also be categorised under the headings such as crime, detective, and private eye films. The different headings used to organise these pictures highlight ‘the difficulty of allocating a single generic name to a set of types of film’ (Howard 153:2000). Within a genre there are many sub-genres and gangster/crime is no exception. To uncover the elements which help sculpt the gangster genre I will analyse two moving images from Martin Scorsese’s Casino (1995). I would believe Casino to be what we understand of a traditional gangster movie, usually depicting activates of a specific organisation the Mafia. I will give a brief history of the emergence of gangster films as I feel it to be relevant, despite the advancements and developments the genre has undertaken. The gangster film dates from the late 1920’s and is widely recognised as an American genre, mainly due to social and economic events relevant to the States at this time – The great depression and prohibition (Howard 153:2000) These events drew light upon real life gangsters and they become media celebrities, for example Al Capone and Ma Barker. The coverage of them in the media therefore created a need for their lives to be depicted on the big screen. Also the gangster films from this time period and those that have followed depicted real life gangsters, or are based on true events heightening both realism and verisimilitude.
The first sequence I have chosen lies near the beginning of the narrative. I think it illustrates iconography and narrative devices which enable the audience to identify the genre through repetition of elements they recognise from previous films of this type. Iconography, which is originally a 15th centaury art history term, refers to symbolic visuals which create meaning. It is the repetition of these elements which define genres.
The sequence begins with a wide angle shot depicting the Las Vegas strip, slowly panning to focus upon the protagonists business – the casino. The Las Vegas strip is symbolic in itself representing the glamour and glitz associated with middle class America. The city of Vegas is tagged as the entertainment capital of the world which signifies wealth and money, along with the obvious association with gambling, an activity prevalent to the genre. Money is a constant recurring feature of Gangster films, and often drives the narrative forward as it is nearly always the motive behind the gangster’s activities and work.
The portrayal of gangsters in Casino goes along with the conventional representations that the audience expect from the genre. They are smartly dressed, high class individuals who treat their criminal activities with a business minded approach. It is of course the money which allows them to live this lavish lifestyle, so they take the work which earns them their funding very seriously. Without their money they are effectively nothing. Their lifestyle is represented not only through characterisations, but through the setting, the places of work, the costume, cars, and the homes they inhabit. After the opening sequence we are shown the protagonist Sam Rothstein (Robert De Niro) entering his place of work – the casino. The bright lights, flash cars and pristine architecture become representative of his lifestyle. He is shown stepping out of a car and walking into the building with associates along a large bright red carpet which signifies the wealth, money and therefore power he posses.
The power of the protagonist is another recurring theme of the genre. They are shown to posses the same level of power as politicians, through there control over police and security. This makes a comment on ideological values held by western society that money can buy you anything. The way Rothstein acquires his wife in the narrative, by luring her in with jewellery and clothing heightens this idea along with an example from the sequence depicted through Joe Pesci’s voice over. He describes how they manage to scam money from the casino by bribing the security staff, to turn a blind eye to their blatant stealing. The camera follows a man taking large amounts of cash from a safe and straight out of the front door without hassle from security. The power of manipulation is demonstrated here, but it ultimately reinforces the importance of money within the genre.
As De Niro’s character enters the Casino, the audience is exposed to a wide angle tracking shot displaying the sumptuous interior, along with the customers, staff, and gangsters. The costume of the gangster is an important feature, and this particular shot allows the audience to distinguish the gangsters from everyone else through their previous knowledge of the genre. This recognition comes from mobster pictures such as The Godfather (Francis Ford Coppola 1972), and earlier examples such as Howard Wells’ The Big Sleep (1942). In these pictures and many others of its type, gangsters are commonly shown wearing expensive co-ordinated suits, like businessman, giving them a level of sophistication, yet more importantly separating them from civilians. This gives the audience the impression that these are not normal people; civilians are represented in brightly dressed clothing, more elaborate fashions, with accessories and flamboyant haircuts. The gangsters are smart, yet subtle in their dress; their haircuts are short and neat but not elaborate, adding to this idea of segregation from normal society. They are highlighted as a niche within society, an exception to the rule if you will.
The fabricated appearance of the Casino becomes more symbolic when we are shown a following pan focusing upon an accountant making his trip into the counting room, and then straight out through the main room of the casino, into a car outside. The counting room is described by De Niro’s voice over as ‘the most sacred room in the casino’ yet the mise en scene draws up a stark contrast when placed against that of the main room where the customers are gambling their money away. The area is represented as a small office room, clean yet bland. The composition is made up of greys, whites and blacks. There are cardboard boxes stacked in the corner along with tall filing cabinets and workers dressed in plain white shirts counting an abundance of ‘cash’. This creates ideas of a capitalist consumer driven society, and also comments upon the how the casino’s fictitious appearances lures encourages people to spend their money. The contrast with the counting room is ironic. There is no attempt for flashy interior design, as no-one in the public can view it, everything is cheap tom maximise profit margins. As De Niro’s voice over continues he explains how all the entertainment features of Vegas have ‘all been arranged just for us to get your money’. This construction of falseness is prevalent in a consumer society, and co-insides with the gangster conventions, of money and more importantly greed. This is what De Niro describes as ‘the truth about Las Vegas’.
The dominance of masculinity is a highly recurrent theme and Casino is no exception. All staff shown working for Rothstein are males along with the associates he meets after he steps out of the car. The male protagonist is usually shown as the one in power; he makes the decisions and pulls the strings within the organisation. It has been argued the genre ‘reinvents the public’s fascination with the swaggering male western outlaw’ (www.fathom.com/course). Male gaze of the camera embodies spectator identification making it enjoyable for the male audience, while the ruthless sexy characterisation ensures pleasure for the female audience.
The second scene I have chosen depicts a different darker side to the character of the gangster. It is a short montage containing much less emphasis on the style and sophistication of the characters and leans more towards their brutal, ruthless and desperate nature. This scene comes much later in the picture which in itself is a reason for this shift in representation. The gangster film is usually made up of the rise and fall of the protagonist and his gang. Because the genre is widely considered as American, most will always follow these codes as they do not want to glorify crime, or represent them as a successful product of the American dream on the wrong side of the law. So as the narrative progresses we will ultimately see more wreck less and violent behaviour which will ultimately lead to their demise. This is interesting when deconstructing a British gangster film for example where often the criminal is shown to have beaten the system, or avoided death or arrest. In Nick Loves The business (2005), the protagonist is seen to have ‘tried crime, women, and drugs…and won, and drove off into the sunset’ with a large container of cash in his car. This demonstrates that cultural differences have great effect upon the depiction of genre.
The montage is broken down into three smaller sections depicting acts of violence. These clips all made up of urban settings that shape the battleground, with the prominence of night and darkness made more apparent. This has audience effect in terms of tension, and also creates an expectation for violence. The ambiguity of a dark urban setting ‘reflects the…complexity of a society where corruption reigns’ (Howard 156:2000). This is relevant to the character of the gangster as it provides a cover for their operations, yet it also becomes representative of their enemy – the police. This short montage offers representations of both sides and highlights power struggles between the two.
The first section focuses on an assault of a man being inflicted by Nicky (played by Joe Pesci) and his gang. The level of brutality common throughout the genre is apparent due to the fact the gang are interrogating the man through extreme force yet they are unsure why. The victim is on his own increasing the cruelty and viciousness of the attack. The editing flicks rapidly to a scene of drug use and snaps back quickly heightening the shock factor created through the violence. De Niro’s voice over co-insides with the image of drug use, suggesting Nicky’s paranoia and hinting towards his eventual demise. A birdseye shot is used as gang retreat to their cars the editing slowly fades into the same shot with only the victim left alone face down on the ground showing their distinct lack of care for the life of another person, adding to the evil, darker characterisation of the gangster.
The second section features on the police arresting a gang member at gun point. The gun is a sign of masculinity making it an iconic symbol of the genre. As he attempts to raise his hands they mistake a sandwich for a gun and shoot him down. The dialogue is crammed with swearing even more so than usual during this sequence, allowing the audience to empathise with the heightened emotions of the characters and also demonstrating the gravity of the situation. The police are also represented as dishonest placing a gun next to the victim to save on paperwork which ties in with the ambiguity of a dark urban setting whilst emphasising the ongoing theme of a corrupt society. A birdseye shot is again composed mainly of dark black areas framing the carnage in the centre of the frame.
The third section shows the gangsters revenge for the above incident and clearly depicts the furiousness, vehemence, and shear disregard the law that embody the sinister nature of the gangster. Ballistic machine gun fire leaves a police residence in tatters. Camera movement and editing are rapid to flow with the sound used which amplify the audience’s reaction. We are given the gangsters perspective enabling us to see the house being destroyed, and possibly giving the audience a guilty satisfaction as we often feel more drawn towards the gangsters than the police throughout the genre. This is aligned with shots of the gang clutching an array of artillery adding to masculine ambience of the scene.
In conclusion I feel Scorsese has created a traditional gangster film containing many reoccurring iconography, made famous by classics such as Scarface (Hawks 1932). Casino follows the pattern of the ‘mob film’ representing an American tragedy. The realism and close association with true to life events heightens the verisimilitude and along with depth of characterisation creates all the more shock when explosive events occur.
Bibliography
Branston, G., Stafford R., 2003, the Media Students Book, London: Routledge
http://www.fathom.com/course/10701053/session3.html
The Godfather, 1972. film. Francis Ford Coppola. USA: Paramount Pictures
Scarface, 1932. film. Howard Hawks. USA: The Caddo Company
Hayward, S., 2000, Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts, London: Routledge
The Business, 2005. Nick Love. UK/Spain: Vertigo Films
Casino, 1995. Martin Scorsese. USA/France: Universal Pictures
The Big Sleep, 1946. Howard Wells. USA: Warner Bros
Chosen Genre: Gangster/Crime Films
I have chosen to analyse the gangster genre which can also be categorised under the headings such as crime, detective, and private eye films. The different headings used to organise these pictures highlight ‘the difficulty of allocating a single generic name to a set of types of film’ (Howard 153:2000). Within a genre there are many sub-genres and gangster/crime is no exception. To uncover the elements which help sculpt the gangster genre I will analyse two moving images from Martin Scorsese’s Casino (1995). I would believe Casino to be what we understand of a traditional gangster movie, usually depicting activates of a specific organisation the Mafia. I will give a brief history of the emergence of gangster films as I feel it to be relevant, despite the advancements and developments the genre has undertaken. The gangster film dates from the late 1920’s and is widely recognised as an American genre, mainly due to social and economic events relevant to the States at this time – The great depression and prohibition (Howard 153:2000) These events drew light upon real life gangsters and they become media celebrities, for example Al Capone and Ma Barker. The coverage of them in the media therefore created a need for their lives to be depicted on the big screen. Also the gangster films from this time period and those that have followed depicted real life gangsters, or are based on true events heightening both realism and verisimilitude.
The first sequence I have chosen lies near the beginning of the narrative. I think it illustrates iconography and narrative devices which enable the audience to identify the genre through repetition of elements they recognise from previous films of this type. Iconography, which is originally a 15th centaury art history term, refers to symbolic visuals which create meaning. It is the repetition of these elements which define genres.
The sequence begins with a wide angle shot depicting the Las Vegas strip, slowly panning to focus upon the protagonists business – the casino. The Las Vegas strip is symbolic in itself representing the glamour and glitz associated with middle class America. The city of Vegas is tagged as the entertainment capital of the world which signifies wealth and money, along with the obvious association with gambling, an activity prevalent to the genre. Money is a constant recurring feature of Gangster films, and often drives the narrative forward as it is nearly always the motive behind the gangster’s activities and work.
The portrayal of gangsters in Casino goes along with the conventional representations that the audience expect from the genre. They are smartly dressed, high class individuals who treat their criminal activities with a business minded approach. It is of course the money which allows them to live this lavish lifestyle, so they take the work which earns them their funding very seriously. Without their money they are effectively nothing. Their lifestyle is represented not only through characterisations, but through the setting, the places of work, the costume, cars, and the homes they inhabit. After the opening sequence we are shown the protagonist Sam Rothstein (Robert De Niro) entering his place of work – the casino. The bright lights, flash cars and pristine architecture become representative of his lifestyle. He is shown stepping out of a car and walking into the building with associates along a large bright red carpet which signifies the wealth, money and therefore power he posses.
The power of the protagonist is another recurring theme of the genre. They are shown to posses the same level of power as politicians, through there control over police and security. This makes a comment on ideological values held by western society that money can buy you anything. The way Rothstein acquires his wife in the narrative, by luring her in with jewellery and clothing heightens this idea along with an example from the sequence depicted through Joe Pesci’s voice over. He describes how they manage to scam money from the casino by bribing the security staff, to turn a blind eye to their blatant stealing. The camera follows a man taking large amounts of cash from a safe and straight out of the front door without hassle from security. The power of manipulation is demonstrated here, but it ultimately reinforces the importance of money within the genre.
As De Niro’s character enters the Casino, the audience is exposed to a wide angle tracking shot displaying the sumptuous interior, along with the customers, staff, and gangsters. The costume of the gangster is an important feature, and this particular shot allows the audience to distinguish the gangsters from everyone else through their previous knowledge of the genre. This recognition comes from mobster pictures such as The Godfather (Francis Ford Coppola 1972), and earlier examples such as Howard Wells’ The Big Sleep (1942). In these pictures and many others of its type, gangsters are commonly shown wearing expensive co-ordinated suits, like businessman, giving them a level of sophistication, yet more importantly separating them from civilians. This gives the audience the impression that these are not normal people; civilians are represented in brightly dressed clothing, more elaborate fashions, with accessories and flamboyant haircuts. The gangsters are smart, yet subtle in their dress; their haircuts are short and neat but not elaborate, adding to this idea of segregation from normal society. They are highlighted as a niche within society, an exception to the rule if you will.
The fabricated appearance of the Casino becomes more symbolic when we are shown a following pan focusing upon an accountant making his trip into the counting room, and then straight out through the main room of the casino, into a car outside. The counting room is described by De Niro’s voice over as ‘the most sacred room in the casino’ yet the mise en scene draws up a stark contrast when placed against that of the main room where the customers are gambling their money away. The area is represented as a small office room, clean yet bland. The composition is made up of greys, whites and blacks. There are cardboard boxes stacked in the corner along with tall filing cabinets and workers dressed in plain white shirts counting an abundance of ‘cash’. This creates ideas of a capitalist consumer driven society, and also comments upon the how the casino’s fictitious appearances lures encourages people to spend their money. The contrast with the counting room is ironic. There is no attempt for flashy interior design, as no-one in the public can view it, everything is cheap tom maximise profit margins. As De Niro’s voice over continues he explains how all the entertainment features of Vegas have ‘all been arranged just for us to get your money’. This construction of falseness is prevalent in a consumer society, and co-insides with the gangster conventions, of money and more importantly greed. This is what De Niro describes as ‘the truth about Las Vegas’.
The dominance of masculinity is a highly recurrent theme and Casino is no exception. All staff shown working for Rothstein are males along with the associates he meets after he steps out of the car. The male protagonist is usually shown as the one in power; he makes the decisions and pulls the strings within the organisation. It has been argued the genre ‘reinvents the public’s fascination with the swaggering male western outlaw’ (www.fathom.com/course). Male gaze of the camera embodies spectator identification making it enjoyable for the male audience, while the ruthless sexy characterisation ensures pleasure for the female audience.
The second scene I have chosen depicts a different darker side to the character of the gangster. It is a short montage containing much less emphasis on the style and sophistication of the characters and leans more towards their brutal, ruthless and desperate nature. This scene comes much later in the picture which in itself is a reason for this shift in representation. The gangster film is usually made up of the rise and fall of the protagonist and his gang. Because the genre is widely considered as American, most will always follow these codes as they do not want to glorify crime, or represent them as a successful product of the American dream on the wrong side of the law. So as the narrative progresses we will ultimately see more wreck less and violent behaviour which will ultimately lead to their demise. This is interesting when deconstructing a British gangster film for example where often the criminal is shown to have beaten the system, or avoided death or arrest. In Nick Loves The business (2005), the protagonist is seen to have ‘tried crime, women, and drugs…and won, and drove off into the sunset’ with a large container of cash in his car. This demonstrates that cultural differences have great effect upon the depiction of genre.
The montage is broken down into three smaller sections depicting acts of violence. These clips all made up of urban settings that shape the battleground, with the prominence of night and darkness made more apparent. This has audience effect in terms of tension, and also creates an expectation for violence. The ambiguity of a dark urban setting ‘reflects the…complexity of a society where corruption reigns’ (Howard 156:2000). This is relevant to the character of the gangster as it provides a cover for their operations, yet it also becomes representative of their enemy – the police. This short montage offers representations of both sides and highlights power struggles between the two.
The first section focuses on an assault of a man being inflicted by Nicky (played by Joe Pesci) and his gang. The level of brutality common throughout the genre is apparent due to the fact the gang are interrogating the man through extreme force yet they are unsure why. The victim is on his own increasing the cruelty and viciousness of the attack. The editing flicks rapidly to a scene of drug use and snaps back quickly heightening the shock factor created through the violence. De Niro’s voice over co-insides with the image of drug use, suggesting Nicky’s paranoia and hinting towards his eventual demise. A birdseye shot is used as gang retreat to their cars the editing slowly fades into the same shot with only the victim left alone face down on the ground showing their distinct lack of care for the life of another person, adding to the evil, darker characterisation of the gangster.
The second section features on the police arresting a gang member at gun point. The gun is a sign of masculinity making it an iconic symbol of the genre. As he attempts to raise his hands they mistake a sandwich for a gun and shoot him down. The dialogue is crammed with swearing even more so than usual during this sequence, allowing the audience to empathise with the heightened emotions of the characters and also demonstrating the gravity of the situation. The police are also represented as dishonest placing a gun next to the victim to save on paperwork which ties in with the ambiguity of a dark urban setting whilst emphasising the ongoing theme of a corrupt society. A birdseye shot is again composed mainly of dark black areas framing the carnage in the centre of the frame.
The third section shows the gangsters revenge for the above incident and clearly depicts the furiousness, vehemence, and shear disregard the law that embody the sinister nature of the gangster. Ballistic machine gun fire leaves a police residence in tatters. Camera movement and editing are rapid to flow with the sound used which amplify the audience’s reaction. We are given the gangsters perspective enabling us to see the house being destroyed, and possibly giving the audience a guilty satisfaction as we often feel more drawn towards the gangsters than the police throughout the genre. This is aligned with shots of the gang clutching an array of artillery adding to masculine ambience of the scene.
In conclusion I feel Scorsese has created a traditional gangster film containing many reoccurring iconography, made famous by classics such as Scarface (Hawks 1932). Casino follows the pattern of the ‘mob film’ representing an American tragedy. The realism and close association with true to life events heightens the verisimilitude and along with depth of characterisation creates all the more shock when explosive events occur.
Bibliography
Branston, G., Stafford R., 2003, the Media Students Book, London: Routledge
http://www.fathom.com/course/10701053/session3.html
The Godfather, 1972. film. Francis Ford Coppola. USA: Paramount Pictures
Scarface, 1932. film. Howard Hawks. USA: The Caddo Company
Hayward, S., 2000, Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts, London: Routledge
The Business, 2005. Nick Love. UK/Spain: Vertigo Films
Casino, 1995. Martin Scorsese. USA/France: Universal Pictures
The Big Sleep, 1946. Howard Wells. USA: Warner Bros
MSVC 102 Postmodernism Literature Review
MSVC 102 Literature Review – Postmodernism
There has been some confusion associated with the theory of postmodernism when it comes to the subject of definition. It is a pluralistic concept of culture and some have even argued whether it exists at all (Foster 1985:vii). This is down to the vast range of ideas the concept brings to culture and the many different ways it is classified. Postmodernism was ‘first used as an aesthetic description to distinguish avant-garde literature and forms of pop art’ (Lewis 2002:215). However as time have progressed postmodernism has broadened and been applied to a larger range of subjects as new ideas have developed on the theory.
Post modern theory has also been seen by Strinati as ‘an attempt to understand a media saturated society’ (2004:206). With the extent of the growth of the mass media in the past few decades this idea is extremely relevant. The media is now seen to create a reflection of society and in someway distorted our idea of reality (2004:206). It has also been seen as an ‘attempt to dissolve boundaries between high and mass culture’ (Boyne/Rattansi 1990:11). To truly understand postmodernism we must define modernism. This describes a new flood of positive political, social, cultural and artistic ideas, which were first brought to light around the 1940’s. They all had the same aim which was to progress society into a new era. Post modern however, ‘concerns aspects of aesthetic reflection upon the nature of modernity’ (Giddens 1990:45) meaning a culmination of new ideas brought together, for example old and new, and unusual things being juxtaposed to create new meanings. It is debatable though that postmodernism has emerged from modernity. It clearly retains many features of high modernism yet Jameson writes that both remain different in their meaning and social function, due to a different positioning of postmodernism in the ‘economic classification of late capital’ (Homer 2002:184)
One of the main ideas associated with the theory has been outlined by the French philosopher Jean Francios Lyotard. He stresses that the theory refers to the ‘collapse of grand narratives’ for example Marxism, and that these have been replaced by smaller ‘little narratives’ due to the emergence of technologies which have changed our ideas on what constitutes knowledge (Edger / Sedgewick 1999:295). These ideas co-inside with the decline of the importance of metanarratives such as religion in a post modern society (Strinati 2004:209)
Another main writer on the theory of postmodernism is French theorist Jean Baudrillard. As discussed postmodernism hints at the decline of metanarratives, Baudrillard commented on this in much of his work, and played a part, through his radical critiques on Marxism. Post modern theory consistently challenges and undermines Marxism. Baudrillard argues firstly that Marxism ‘does not adequately illuminate pre modern societies which were organized around symbolic exchange and not production’ (Kellner 2002:50). He continues to argue modern societies are ‘characterized by differentiation’, whereas post-modern societies are ‘characterized by dedifferentiation, or implosion.’ This shows the culmination of different ideas within society a major theme of the post-modern, for example the growth of multicultural societies. Yet the post modern statement that metanarratives are in decline is problematic and an area of critique within post modern theory due to the fact it can be considered as a metanarrative itself. Strinati argues because it ‘presents a definite view of knowledge’ and ‘presumes to tell us something true about the world, and knows why it is able to do this’ how is not ‘thought of as a metanarrative’ (2004:222).
Lyotard believes postmodernism to be a positive development in our society whilst Baudrillard does not. Baudrillard's post-modern world is that of mass communication, mass media and the reproduction of signs. He believes individuals avoid realism in favour ‘for the ecstasies of hyper reality’ gained through computer and ‘technological experiences’ (Keller 2002:53). This is seen as negative by Baudrillard in due to the fact individuals are no longer concerned with reality as the mass media has blurred their vision of it. For example with the introduction and growth in popularity of computer games people are able to ‘experience various forms of reality second hand’. Yet these are only ‘Surface stimulations rather than real events’ (Strinati 2002:207).
The dominance of the mass media influences other aspects of post modern theory, such as the strand that can be identified as confusions over time and space articulated through post modern popular culture. Harvey for example believes the speed and scope of mass communication, and the rapid pace at which information can be sent and received makes time and space seem less stable and incoherent (Strinati 2004:208). Therefore it can be said postmodernism interrupted the abstract time and space of modernity. Additionally the media now has the ability to represent a place without actually being there. There does not have to be any truth, only representations which create a fake sense of reality.
Frederic Jameson is an American literary critic well known for his commentary on post modern theory. He also believes that ‘postmodernism ushers in a radically new experience of space and time’ (Homer 2002:182). One of Jameson’s pieces of work has been described by Homer as ‘one of the most influential articles to emerge from the debate of postmodernism’ (2002:181). He describes that post modern stances, positive or negative, can always be shown to project a particular vision of history (2002:181). This goes along with the idea that postmodernism simply combines elements of the past to create new meaning. Jameson also brought to light two of the most important characteristics in postmodernism today, pastiche and parody. Jameson described them to both contain the imitation and ‘mimicry of other styles’ and the ‘mannerisms and stylistic twitches of other styles’ (1995:113). Yet parody uses takes these other styles and mocks them for comic effect and ‘satiric impulse’, pastiche simply refers ‘stylistic diversity and heterogeneity’ and is ‘without laughter’ (Jameson 1995:113). Pastiche and parody are both heavily featured in modern society, whether it is in film, literature, music, or television.
Postmodernism can also be seen as a twisting of meaning or an attempt to ‘radicalise the modern’ (Edger / Sedgewick 1999:297) therefore creating new meaning. Modernism was seen to just replace the old with the new, contrasted with the post modern idea to take something and line it up alongside the unusual or impractical, to emphasise style, rather than focusing on use value or substance. This is a major theme of the post modern. As noted by Strinati ‘we increasingly consume images and signs for their own sake rather than their usefulness or the deeper values they may represent’ (2004:207). This is an area of critique for post modern theory, as it is argued that style has become so important that ‘qualities such as artistic merit, integrity, seriousness, authenticity’ and realism are more often than not diluted (2004:207).
Postmodernism has been applied to areas of production and consumption, clashing with certain strands of Marxist theory. Postmodernism draws up on ideas of popular consumption, with production being focused on creating items for sale to the masses. As stated by Strinati ‘the economic needs of capitalism have shifted from production to consumption’ (2004:216). This is relevant to Fordism which combines ‘semi-automatic assembly line production with the mass consumption of the products of these processes’ (Callinicos 1990:111). This hints at globalisation theory, and suggests that we are becoming a consumer driven society and we are all buying into the same items. An example of this would be that ‘the great majority of film and television texts which are consumed in the English speaking world are sourced in the United States’ (Lewis 2002:352). This is due to the mass production of these forms of text in the
The dominance of these institutions is another critique of postmodernism when thinking about popular consumption. With the introduction of institutions such as MTV across the globe and in general the large number of American texts spreading to other countries, is seen to categorizing the planet as a whole, and breaking down the diversity that lies between cultures. Also the emergence of multiculturalism, which creates a need for identity specific product, due to cultural and racial differences does not seem to fit with mass consumption or the concept of fordism. Because of a rise in the importance of consumerism this has allowed for new occupations to become available due to the need to create cultural symbols and media images that encourage and further consumerism (Strinati 2004:218).
In the many different debates raised by post modern theory, one important strand is a the sense of a loss of identity as society has progressed. This is due to a decline in more traditional ways of classifying people for example local communities or social class. Multiculturalism can also be seen to have played a part in this loss of identity along with Tran nationalisation and globalisation. This decline is has occurred, according to Strinati because ‘of tendencies in modern capitalism such as increasing rapid and wide scale rates of social change’ (2004:220). Others argue postmodernism has paved the way for people to gain new identities and that ‘an individual human being and his/her experience of life has not been the same throughout history’ (Lewis 2002:370). The idea concerning a change in the definition of identity contrasts with the view that ‘globalist processes’ have caused a ‘crisis of identity and instead that ‘identity is no longer considered… essential’ and ‘is opened by new discourses of change, freedom, interaction, instability, process and language’ (Lewis 2002:370). This is due to a larger realm of freedom in when defining oneself within society. This could be concerned with interests, sexuality, religion, ideologies and beliefs.
In conclusion I believe the subject of postmodernism to continuously shift in terms of definition when applying it to different areas of the media, or social and historical contexts. For example within cinema its seen as a film that is concerned with style and something which brings together different genres in order to create new ones, or sub-genres. With architecture it refers to a need to be different from buildings relevant to modernism. When it comes to social contexts postmodernism hints at globalisation as becoming a bigger part of modern society and leans toward the ideas of mass culture and mass consumption. Because it is such a vast theory relevant to many different areas of the modern world it becomes difficult to define, and because of this ‘many doubt whether the term can ever be dignified by conceptual coherence’ (Boyne / Rattansi 1990:9)
Bibliography
- Bertens, H. & Natoli, J. eds., 2002. Postmodernism the Key Figures. Massachusetts, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
- Edgar, A & Sedgwick, Peter. Eds., 1999. Key Concepts in Cultural Theory.
- Foster, H. eds., 1985. Postmodern Culture.
- Lewis, J. 2002. Cultural Studies: The Basics. London, SAGE Publications Ltd.
- Strinati, D. 2004. An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture (second edition). Oxen, Routlege
Monday, 26 November 2007
MSVC103 Assignment 1: Close textual analysis.
Chosen text: Human Traffic (1999) Justin Kerrigan
In a still image from scene 22, two of the main protagonist, Jip and Lulu, are pitched as the focal point for the shot. They are placed in the centre of the frame sat down in a nightclub through a MLS at a flat angle. This allows the spectator to view their surrounding possibly highlighting the significance they hold for the characters. A deep focus is used to stress this point further. The flat camera angle suggests the characters are on some euphoric wavelength, and hold a level of understanding with each other. Kerrigan is attempting to demonstrate these people feel comfortable with each other. Maybe the fact they are sat on a large sofa accentuates this idea.
The MLS also allows Kerrigan to build the composition of the frame. He is demonstrating intimacy of Jip and Lulu in this shot, conventionally a CU would be an appropriate choice for this. Yet because Kerrigan can place extras posing as other clubbers within the frame he is able to achieve the effect of intimacy more than a CU would. The extras are placed either side of Jip and Lulu almost framing the two. Also they all have their backs facing the two alienating them from the rest of the group. This also suggests a private moment is occurring, which is important as Jip is discussing a sensitive personal subject. The position of the other clubbers also draws the spectator in to the conversation as we are the only ones facing them. This implicates the audience and gives them a shared position with Lulu as a listener. The technique of including the audience in this way is used extensively by Kerrigan. The spectator becomes one of the characters friends, allowing a great amount of relation and empathy, a main attraction of the film in my opinion.
The image is dimly lit around Jip and Lulu with lighting focused around the two. This emulates them, and determines the audiences focus. The fact that they are ‘lit up’ possibly comments on the loving feeling that develops between them later in the narrative. Also the contrast of light and dark could suggest a distortion in the minds of the partygoers. This idea is also developed through the contrast of color within the frame. The clothing of the characters is bright as are the objects placed on the wall, yet the wall itself is a dark black adding to this idea of an imbalance. This is also suggesting that the characters feeling of togetherness is merely an illusion created by the drugs they are taking.
The two main characters themselves are placed very close together, legs overlapping and hands touching. This acts as a prolepsis and gives clues to the relationship blossoms later in the narrative. It highlights Kerrigan’s ongoing theme of friendship and closeness. They are both smiling whilst looking at each other. The scenes within the club are made to represent happiness. The spectator is shown the characters to be at their happiest whilst within the club. The fact Jip and Lulu are placed so close together and smiling, perfectly depicts two friends at the peak of their weekend and emulates the happiness they are experiencing.
I believe this film to have a specific target audience. Elements within the frame depict this. Kerrigan’s amount of relation and spectator involvement in the text means the audience must be able understand what these characters experience in a specific environment. For example the music they listen to and the social activities they partake in. The way the extras are dressed in this shot, make a hint towards the rave culture that developed in the 90’s, as does colorful surroundings of the set. This sets the scene for the spectator, especially those familiar with the rave scene. This also creates a connection with target audience allowing Kerrigan to keep their full attention throughout.
Kerrigan changes the mood of the film as the party comes to a close, and the euphoria created by the drugs wears thin. There is a shift in theme from togetherness to alienation. I believe by highlighting these two sides of drug use Kerrigan removes bias from his portrayal of drug use. Neither is he celebrating their use nor condemning drug use. I believe this adds to the verisimilitude of the text and makes it seem more realistic to the audience. He shows both the ‘high’ and ‘low’ points in the group’s weekend creating a fair and true to life depiction of how people are affected by drugs. By making the film more believable the relationships built with the audience becomes stronger.
In a moving sequence later in the text Kerrigan turns to demonstrate another key theme, Alienation. As the party dissolves the group head home, and the feeling of togetherness has been stripped from the film especially for Danny Dyer’s character Moff. The group is shown sat back at the flat, yet Moff is shown to be seated alone whilst the other characters are situated together on the sofa. There is little camera movement in the sequence possibly highlighting Moff’s one track mind and inability to understand what is being said by the other characters. Moff is shown through a high angle MCU followed by a high angle CU. The audience is therefore looking down upon him, making him seem weak and vulnerable. It also places Moff below others suggesting he has some form of challenge to overcome.
The other characters are shown through Moff’s P.O.V at a flat angle which differentiates them from Moff, highlighting his alienation. The P.O.V shot becomes a major factor as the focus for this sequence is Moff’s bewilderment and confused mind state, caused from excessive drug taking. Kerrigan is possibly highlighting the dangers of drug use here. The P.O.V allows the audience to see the estrangement that drug users face and perhaps creates sympathy for Moff. His facial expressions and body language also suggest this. He looks withdrawn and defensive wearing a large coat indoors that is zipped all the way up signifying he is out of place. His facial expressions accentuate the isolation he is facing. They change from laughing to try and fit in with the conversation, to worried and paranoid expressions when he faces the realization he can’t understand what his friends are saying. The conversation is inaccessible to Moff portraying his separation from his friends only further. He is again singled out through the fact he is the only character to be shown alone within a frame during this sequence. The laughter of the other characters heightens Moff’s feeling of isolation. Every other character is laughing except him; it is almost as if he is exempt from the joke and therefore the group.
The audience is further implicated through Moff’s bewilderment towards the dialogue. The speech is rapid, broken and distorted as if we can hear what Moff can. Kerrigan is showing the dialogue through Moff’s point of view. This again directly implicates the audience which allows us to feel separated as the character does. Kerrigan places the spectator in this position as it gives us the best idea of his situation and creates empathy towards the character. Relationships built earlier through the text using similar techniques have created unison with this particular group of friends. Kerrigan is able to maximize empathy by using Moff’s perspective at this specific point of the film as we already feel warmed to him.
The editing heightens the uneven distorted outlook the sequence has been given through the point of view. The editing uses straight cuts at a rapid pace which co-insides with the dialogue. This shows the mental state of the character in question reflecting his thought process. Through the editing and dialogue Kerrigan has created a twisted sequence which demonstrates Moff’s mental instability. As the dialogue begins to fade Moff looks towards the camera, as if he is looking for help furthering the empathy for the character. Kerrigan also uses this to cue a dream sequence, as a character looking straight into the camera breaks the realistic feel of a film. This takes the sequence to a more formalistic realm.
The dream sequence places Moff on a floating Sofa in outer space. His location alone signifies his feeling of isolation. Moff is hunched into one corner of the sofa creating a defensive position for him again. This suggests he feels threatened, highlighting his paranoia and lack of trust towards his friends. His position and body language whilst in the living room, is similar to that whilst floating outer space, adding to this idea. It also highlights his mind state to be far from the real world. The voice he hears during the dream sequence continues this suggestion. Moff identifies the voice as ‘reality’ and we are shown a P.O.V from his perspective which shows LS of the planet earth. This also creates some much needed light relief for the spectator through Moff saying ‘reality is that you?’ This is important as film is primarily a comedy yet the tone has shifted so greatly since the party had fizzled out. The LS of the earth is first shown in distorted focus and slowly becomes clearer. This signifies the slow movement of Moff’s thoughts and his clouded vision of the world created by the lifestyle he chooses to lead. Again Kerrigan places the spectator to take up Moff’s position; as he focuses on something the camera also does the same adding to the empathy we feel toward him.
Toward the end of the sequence Moff’s movements become twitchy and unnatural as he faces up to reality. He is seen clutching his hands together and begs the question ‘what is happening to me?’ The audience’s empathetic involvement increases during these moments. We begin to see a hope for Moff after he is told to ‘knock the drugs on the head’ his expression is one of worry and thought creating a sense of hope for Moff. The camera shows him through a low angle shot this time giving him a sense of empowerment and clarity. Kerrigan uses a CU as this best demonstrate Dyers expression. The audience finally sees Moff facing up to reality and this provides a form of closure for his character.
Kerrigan gives an ongoing social commentary throughout the narrative. The idea of social paranoia between friendships groups is a major theme within the moving sequence. Moff feels vulnerable yet he is unable to express his feeling to his closest friends. This creates more verisimilitude as this situation is one faced by many people within our society every day. Kerrigan is possibly highlighting this as a problem within our society and begging the question why are people unable to develop an understanding and feeling of togetherness. The idea of togetherness is clearly apparent during the single frame, during the drug induced ‘high’ period of the film, yet why are drugs needed as a catalyst to create this feeling? Kerrigan suggests society desires a need of complete togetherness yet this is only achieved through ‘temporary moments of enlightenment’ (Jip, Human Traffic).
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